During the babbling phase, the number of different phonemes (units of sound) produced are increased, known as phonemic expansion. Later at about 9 or 10 months the number of phonemes occurs (phonemic contraction). In other words, the child retains the sounds of its native language but discards the ones it knows aren’t needed. We know this happens because research has shown that at this age, the sounds made by babies from different nationalities are different.
2. How is turn-taking encouraged in early speech development? Why is it important?
3. What is a phoneme and what is a grapheme?
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in speech. When we teach reading we teach children which letters represent those sounds. For example – the word ‘hat’ has 3 phonemes – ‘h’ ‘a’ and ‘t’.
A grapheme is a letter or a number of letters that represent the sounds in our speech. So a grapheme will be the letter/ letters that represent a phoneme
5. What is a proto word?
Words that are similar to actual words such as "gaga" for Grandma or "baba" for bottle
6. What is a holophrase?
A holophrase is a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought.
7. What are the four categories of first words according to Katherine Nelson (1973)?
- Naming things (N) e.g. ball, dog, juice
- Actions/events (A) e.g give, sit, go
- Personal/social (S) e.g. yes, hi, bye-bye
- Modifying things (M) e.g. dirty, nice, allgone
When a child is rewarded for their behaviour such as their use of language, meaning that they are more likely to repeat it again.
9. What is negative reinforcement?
When a child is not rewarded for their behaviour but instead is supported and strengthened. Negative reinforcement can strengthen the child's behaviour as it can stop or remove any unpleasant experience.
10. Explain the following stages of children’s linguistic development according to Jean Aitchison:
a. LabellingInvolves making the link between the sounds of particular words and the objects to which they refer e.g. understanding that “mummy” refers to the child’s mother. In other words, associating a name with something.
b. Packaging
This entails understanding a word’s range of meaning. This is when Over extension and Under extension become a hurdle in the development of the language.
c. Network-building
This involves grasping the connections between words; understanding that some words are opposite in meaning. Aitchison argued that there are no EXACT dates to which a child reaches a certain stage of learning language – some children learn faster than others.11. Explain the following stages of children’s linguistic development according to Piaget:
a. Sensorimotor
When infants starts to gain a understanding of themselves and how things work through interactions with the environment. Know the different between themselves and other objects.
b. Pre-operational
When a child begins to develop both their speech and imagination.
c. Concrete operational
At this stage, a child begins to question different things around them and look at the world in a bigger picture.
d. Formal operational
This is where the child's cognition is in its final form/stage. At this point a child can think logically and is able to grasp abstract concepts. Their abstract thinking becomes similar to an adults.
12. What is Mean Length Utterance (MLU) and what can it tell us about a child’s language proficiency?
Mean Length Utterance is used to define stages of Child Language Acquisition. MLU is calculated by dividing the total number of words spoken by the number of utterances a child makes.
13. Define the following stages in terms of a child’s grammatical development:
a. One word/holophrastic(12-14 months)
Children will begin to use words in this stage. They will start to use “yes”/”no”, “go” or “bad. But you will never hear them using the words “in”, “the” or “bad”.
b. Two-word
(24 months)Children start to use “mini sentences”, start to use “me” and “you” and some pronouns
c. Telegraphic
24 – 30 months
d. Post-telegraphic
14. What three stages of negative formations did Ursula Bellugi discover in young children?
- The child uses 'no' or 'not' at the beginning or end of a sentence. 'No wear shoes'.
- Moves 'no/not' inside the sentence. 'I no want it'.
- Attaches the negative to auxiliary verbs and the Copula be securely. 'No I don't want to go to nursery. I am not
15. What does LAD stand for? Which theorist suggested we have a LAD? What is a LAD?
Language acquisition device is from Chomsky's theory
16. What is a virtuous error? Give examples.
Is when a child makes a mistake by over-generalising or over-applying a rule to words. Often found in spelling, speaking word endings and phonetic errors.
17. What are overextension and underextension? How do they contradict Skinner’s ideas?
18. What is Universal Grammar?
It is a theory that suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest without being taught.
19. How are Bruner and Vygotski’s theories similar and different? Give examples and use terminology.
20. How are Halliday and Dore’s categories similar and different?
21. What is egocentric speech?
The term egocentric refers to a child's inability to understand another person's point of view; in other words, he or she believes that other children feel, think, and experience life as they do.
22. Child-led discourse?
23. What are some useful features of CDS to discuss in an essay and why?
24. What does recast/reformulation mean?
A technique used to correct a child's errors and mistakes but without obstructing communication or the flow of language.
25. What does LASS stand for and whose theory is it?
Language acquisition support system is from Bruner's interactionist theory https://www.phonicbooks.co.uk/2011/01/17/what-is-a-phoneme/
http://the-language-cru.blogspot.co.uk/2013/05/katherine-nelson.html
https://www.slideshare.net/memokuller/universal-grammar-14101568
https://aggslanguage.wordpress.com/chomsky/
https://www.learning-theories.com/piagets-stage-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
http://nfgsa2englishlanguage.blogspot.co.uk/2010/05/virtuous-error.html
https://quizlet.com/77887574/ursula-bellugi-stages-of-negative-formation-flash-cards/
